Saturday, January 24, 2015
2016 ඇමරිකානු ජනාධිපතිවරණයට රිපක්ලිබන් පක්ෂයේ ප්‍රධාන අපේක්ෂකයා ලංකාවේ හෙළයෙක්
ඈත පිටිසර ගමක් වන මොණරාගල සිරිවිජයපුර හි උපත ලැබූ දුනේශ් රාවනසිංහ නම් කුඩා කොලුවා පුංචි අවධියේ පටන් ඉගෙනීමට පමණක් නොව ක්‍රීඩාවටද දක්ෂය.
5හේ ශිෂ්‍යත්ව ඉහළින් සමත් වන හෙතෙම ඉන්පසු ඇතුළත් වන්නේ කොළඹ ආනන්ද විද්‍යාලයටයි.
සිප්සතර හදාරන අතරතුරදී රාවණ දෙයියන්ගේ අඩවියේ පිහිටි නිවසක් තුළ ඔහුගේ පියා මව හා සහෝදරිය වන අලි ප්‍රහාරයකින් අකාලයේ මිය යන විට ඔහුට වයස අවුරුදු 14 ක් ලැබුවා පමණි.
එයින් කම්පාවට පත් නොවී ඔහු දිගටම අධ්‍යාපනය ලැබීමට අදිටන් කරගත්තේය.රාවණ රජතුමාගේ ගුප්ත රහස් දන්නා වයසක තැනැත්තෙකුව ඔහුට මුණ ගැසෙන්නේ පවුලේ වියෝවෙන් පසු සිය ගමට පැමිණි එක් අවස්ථාවකය.
හෙළයන්ගේ පැරණි රහස් ඉගෙනගන්නා දුනේශ් තරුණයාට එම මහළු තැනැත්තා පවසන ලද්දේ කවදා හෝ ලොවට සේවයක් කරන ලෙසයි.
ආනන්ද විද්‍යාලයේ ඔහුට සමකරන්නට එකල කිසිදු සිසුවෙක් නොවීය.උසස් පෙළද ගණිත අංශයෙන් විශිෂ්ඨ ලෙස සමත්වන දුනේෂ්ගේ සරසවි සිහිනයට තිත තැබෙන්නේ නවකවදය නිසාය.නවක වදය මුවාවෙන් ඔහුට දෙන අසීමිත වද හිංසා හේතුවෙන් ඔහු මොරටුව සරසවි ගමන නතර කරන්නට තීරණය කළේය.
මොරටුව සරසවියෙන් නික්මී ගෙදර බලා යෑමට පිටත් වද්දී ඔහුට ආතර් සී මධ්‍යස්ථානයේ ආතර් සී ක්ලාක් මහතා අහම්බෙන් මෙන් මුන ගැසේ.
රාවණ රහස් සොරකම් කර ලොවට ඡන්ද්‍රිකා තාක්ෂනය හදුන්වා දුන්නේ ඔහුය.දුනේශ්ද රාවණා රහස් දන්නෙකු බව තේරුම් ගැනීමට ඔහුට වැඩි වේලාවක් නොගියේය.වහාම ඇමරිකාවේ හාවඩ් සරසවියේ මිතුරෙකු අමතන ඔහු දුනේශ්ව එහි යවන්නට කටයුතු කරන්නේ.
හාවඩ් විශ්වවිද්‍යාලයෙන් උපාධිය ලබන දුනේශ්ට වසර දෙකක් යෑමට පෙරත් ඇමරිකානු පුරවැසි භාවය ලැබෙන අතර ඇමරිකාවේ තවමත් හෙළි නොකළ CIA FBI වැනි ආයතනවලටත් වඩා බලවත් බුද්ධි අංශයක ප්‍රධාන තනතුර හිමිවන්නේය.
ඉන් අනතුරුව ඇමරිකාව මුහුණ දුන් ප්‍රධානපෙළේ අභියෝග කිහිපයකටම උපක්‍රමික සැලසුම් සකස් කළේ ඔහුය.අරාබි වසන්තය තුළින් රජයන් පෙරළිම ,ස්මාර්ට් දුරකථන සමාජ ජාල හරහා බුද්ධිමය තොරතුරු ගවේෂනය අභ්‍යාවකාශ තරණයක් හරහා ජීවින් අභිජනනය , ඊබෝලා වෛරසය නිපදවා එය ලොව පුරා පතුරුවා ඊට ඖෂදද නිපදවා එතුළින් අධික ලාභ ලැබීම,සධාම් හුසේන්,ගඩාෆි,බින්ලාඩන් ඝාතනවල ප්‍රධාන මොලකරුද ඔහුම වේ.
කවුරුත් නොදැන හිටියත් ඇමරිකාවේ බැරක් ඔබාමා හට උපදෙස් දෙන ප්‍රධාන උපදේශකයාද ඔහු වේ.එමෙන්ම ඇමරිකාවේ නවෝත්පාදනයේ වත්මන් පුරෝගාමියා මෙන්ම පියාද ඔහු වේ.ස්ටීව් ජොබ්ස් මෙන්ම බිල් ගේට්ස් වැනි අයද ඔහුගේ ගෝලයින් වේ.අද අපි පරිහරණය කරන බොහෝ තාක්‍ෂනික උපකරණ ඔහුගේ අනුදැනුම මත නිපදවනු ලැබූ ඒවා වේ.
ඉතින් එතරම් සේවයක් කළ එවැනි පුද්ගලයෙකුව එළැඹෙන 2016 ජනාධිපතිවරණයේදි රටේ ප්‍රධාන පුරවැසියා කිරීමට එරට ප්‍රධාන පක්ෂයක් මේවන විට කැමැත්ත පළ කර තිබේ.
ඔහුගේ මීලග නවෝත්පාදනයන් අතර පුද්ගලයෙකු අමරණීය කිරීම අන්‍ය සිතුවිලි විද්යුත් ආකාරයට මෙහෙයවීම සුපිරි සොල්දාදුවන් තැනීම වැනි දෑ වැදගත් වේ.එවැන්නක් කිරීමට ඔහු සමත්ව ජනාධීපතිවුවහොත් ව්‍යවස්ථා සංශෝධයකින් ලොව බලවත්ම පුද්ගලයා ලෙස චිරාත් කාලයක් සිටීමට ඔහුට හැකි වනු ඇත.
ඇයි රිපක්ලිබන් පක්ෂයේ ප්‍රධාන අපේක්ෂකයා ලෙස ලංකාවේ උපන් ඇමරිකානුවෙක් ඇතුළත් කළේ? යැයි CNN රූපවාහිනි නාලිකාවේ ක්‍රිස්ටියානා අමන්පූර් විමසූ විට එම පක්ෂයේ උත්තර මණ්ඩලය පවසා ඇත්තේ "අපේ රට මේ වෙලේ චීනයෙන් උතුරු කොරියාවෙන් හා ISIS සංවිධානයෙන් එල්ල වී ඇති අභියෝග හමුවේ එයට නොබියව උපක්‍රමිකව මුහුණ දිය හැකි එකම ජාතිය සිංහලයන් පමණයි."
පුදුමයට කරුණ ලංකාවේ පැවති ජනාධිපතිවරණයේදී හිටපු ජනාධිපතිව පරදා නව ජනපතිකෙනෙක් පත් කිරීමට ඔහුගේ උපදෙස් මත කණ්ඩායමක් ක්‍රියා කළ බව වත්මන් ජනපති බැරක් ඔබාමා ඔුහුගේ ආරක්ෂක මණ්ඩලයට කියූ කරුනක් මේ වන විට හෙලි වෙමින් පැවතීමයි.
බැරක් ඔබාමා ඩිමොක්‍රටික් පාක්ෂිකයෙක් වුවත් දුනේශ් මිළග ජනාධිපතිවරණයට ඉදිරිපත්වනුයේ රිපක්ලිබන් පක්ෂයෙනි.ඒ අනුව ඔහුට පක්ෂ දෙකේම සහය හිමි වීමට නියමිත බව වාර්ථා වේ
අපේ උන්ට අපේ අයව අගේ නැති වුනාට ඇමරිකානුවන්ට අගේ තේරෙනවා.අපේ රටේ උපන් ඔහු ගැන ආඩම්බරනම් මේක Share කරන්න
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ආදරෙයි මං ඔය හිතට තාමත්
සිහිනයකවත් ඔයා දැන් නාවත්
වෙන්වෙලා අපි දුරින් ඉමු කීවත්
මතක් වෙන්නේ ඔයාවයි තාමත්....
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my love
https://plus.google.com/111099495901444211951/posts
සිහිනයකවත් ඔයා දැන් නාවත්
වෙන්වෙලා අපි දුරින් ඉමු කීවත්
මතක් වෙන්නේ ඔයාවයි තාමත්....
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my love
https://plus.google.com/111099495901444211951/posts
මෙන්න Google Labs ලා අපි වෙනුවෙන්ම හදපු පටිටම Service
එකක්?නමින්
කියනවා නමි Google Sinhalese.මෙකෙන් වෙන්නේ අපි බිලොග්
එකක් ලියනකොට
,නැත්නමි Gmail පාවිචිචි කරනකොට,ලියන්න ඔිනි දේ ඉංශ්‍රිසියෙන්
(සිංglish වලින්)
ලිවිවම ඒක සිංහල යුනිකෝඩි වලට හැර වෙන එක?
උදාහරනයක් විදියට අපි ලිවිවොත් :
mama gedara yanawa
කියලා,එතකොට ක්ෂනිකව ඒක සිංහල යුනිකෝඩි වලට හැරවිලා,
මම ගෙදර යනවා
වෙනවා?
බිලොග් ලියන අයට ගොඩක් වැදගත් වෙන දෙයක් මෙක,පාවිචිචි
කරලා බලන්න
.මෙන්න ලින්ක් එක,
http://www.google.com/transliterate/Sinhalese
ඒ වගේම Google IME (Google Input Method) Software එක තමන්ගේ
පරිගනකයට බාගත්තොත් මෙ වැඩෙ Note Pad,Microsoft Word
වගේ වැඩසටහන්
වලටත් පාවිචිචි කරන්න පුලුවන්?
එහෙම බාගන්න ඔිනි අයට මෙන්න බාගන්න ලින්ක් එක,
http://www.google.com/ime/transliteration/
By
Praveen
එකක්?නමින්
කියනවා නමි Google Sinhalese.මෙකෙන් වෙන්නේ අපි බිලොග්
එකක් ලියනකොට
,නැත්නමි Gmail පාවිචිචි කරනකොට,ලියන්න ඔිනි දේ ඉංශ්‍රිසියෙන්
(සිංglish වලින්)
ලිවිවම ඒක සිංහල යුනිකෝඩි වලට හැර වෙන එක?
උදාහරනයක් විදියට අපි ලිවිවොත් :
mama gedara yanawa
කියලා,එතකොට ක්ෂනිකව ඒක සිංහල යුනිකෝඩි වලට හැරවිලා,
මම ගෙදර යනවා
වෙනවා?
බිලොග් ලියන අයට ගොඩක් වැදගත් වෙන දෙයක් මෙක,පාවිචිචි
කරලා බලන්න
.මෙන්න ලින්ක් එක,
http://www.google.com/transliterate/Sinhalese
ඒ වගේම Google IME (Google Input Method) Software එක තමන්ගේ
පරිගනකයට බාගත්තොත් මෙ වැඩෙ Note Pad,Microsoft Word
වගේ වැඩසටහන්
වලටත් පාවිචිචි කරන්න පුලුවන්?
එහෙම බාගන්න ඔිනි අයට මෙන්න බාගන්න ලින්ක් එක,
http://www.google.com/ime/transliteration/
By
Praveen
Tuesday, December 31, 2013
Sri Lanka
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Ceylon" redirects here. For the time period of 1948–1972, see Dominion of Ceylon. For other uses, see Ceylon (disambiguation).
| Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka
ශ්‍රී ලංකා ප්‍රජාතාන්ත්‍රික සමාජවාදී ජනරජය
இலங்கை சனநாயக சோசலிசக் குடியரசு |
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|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
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| Anthem: Sri Lanka Matha Mother Sri Lanka |
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 |
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| Capital | Colombo (Commercial) Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte (Administrative) 6°54′N 79°54′E |
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| Largest city | Colombo | |||||
| Official languages | ||||||
| Recognized | English | |||||
| Demonym | Sri Lankan | |||||
| Government | Unitary semi-presidential constitutional republic | |||||
| - | President | Mahinda Rajapaksa | ||||
| - | Prime Minister | D. M. Jayaratne | ||||
| - | Speaker of the Parliament | Chamal Rajapaksa | ||||
| - | Chief Justice | Mohan Peiris[1] | ||||
| Legislature | Parliament | |||||
| Independence from the United Kingdom | ||||||
| - | Dominion | 4 February 1948 | ||||
| - | Republic | 22 May 1972 | ||||
| - | Current constitution | 7 September 1978 | ||||
| Area | ||||||
| - | Total | 65,610 km2 (122nd) 25,332 sq mi |
||||
| - | Water (%) | 4.4 | ||||
| Population | ||||||
| - | 2012 census | 20,277,597[2] (57th) | ||||
| - | Density | 323/km2 (40th) 836.6/sq mi |
||||
| GDP (PPP) | 2012 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $127 billion[3] (64th) | ||||
| - | Per capita | $6,135[3] (111th) | ||||
| GDP (nominal) | 2012 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $64.914 billion[3] (68th) | ||||
| - | Per capita | $3,139[3] (123rd) | ||||
| Gini (2010) | 36.4[4] medium |
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| HDI (2012) |  0.715[5]high · 92nd |
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| Currency | Sri Lankan rupee (LKR) |
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| Time zone | SLST (UTC+5:30) | |||||
| Date format | dd/mm/yyyy (AD) | |||||
| Drives on the | left | |||||
| Calling code | +94 | |||||
| ISO 3166 code | LK | |||||
| Internet TLD | ||||||
i/ʃriː-/;[6][7] Sinhala: ශ්‍රී ලංකාව, śrī laṃkāva, Tamil: இலங்கை, ilaṅkai), officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an island country in the northern Indian Ocean off the southern coast of the Indian subcontinent in South Asia; known until 1972 as Ceylon (/sɨˈlɒn, seɪ-, siː-/), Sri Lanka has maritime borders with India to the northwest and the Maldives to the southwest.Sri Lanka has a documented history that spans over 3000 years.[8] Its geographic location and deep harbours made it of great strategic importance from the time of the ancient Silk Road[9] through to World War II.[10] Sri Lanka is a diverse country, home to many religions, ethnicities and languages.[11] It is the land of the Sinhalese, Sri Lankan Tamils, Moors, Indian Tamils, Burghers, Malays, Kaffirs and the aboriginal Vedda.[12] Sri Lanka has a rich Buddhist heritage, and the first known Buddhist writings were composed on the island.[13] The country's recent history has been marred by a thirty-year civil war which decisively but controversially[14] ended in a military victory in 2009.[15]
Sri Lanka is a republic and a unitary state governed by a presidential system. The capital, Sri Jayawardenapura-Kotte, is a suburb of the largest city, Colombo. An important producer of tea, coffee, gemstones, coconuts, rubber, and the native cinnamon,[16] Sri Lanka is known as "the Pearl of the Indian Ocean" because of its natural beauty. Sri Lanka has also been called "the teardrop of India" because of its shape and location, and "the nation of smiling people".[17] The island contains tropical forests and diverse landscapes with high biodiversity.
The country has had a long history of international engagement, being a founding member of SAARC and a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, the G77 and the Non-Aligned Movement. It is also the only country in South Asia that is currently rated 'high' on the Human Development Index.[5]
Etymology
Main article: Names of Sri Lanka
In antiquity, Sri Lanka was known to travellers by a variety of
names. Known in India as Lanka or Sinhala, ancient Greek geographers
called it Taprobane[18] /təˈprɒbəniː/ and Arabs referred to it as Serendib (the origin of the word "serendipity").[19] Ceilão, the name given to Sri Lanka by the Portuguese when they arrived in 1505,[20] was transliterated into English as Ceylon.[21] As a British crown colony, the island was known as Ceylon; it achieved independence as the Dominion of Ceylon in 1948.In Sinhala the country is known as ශ්‍රී ලංකා śrī laṃkā, IPA: [ʃɾiːˈlaŋkaː], and the island itself as ලංකාව laṃkāva, IPA: [laŋˈkaːʋə].[citation needed] In Tamil they are both இலங்கை ilaṅkai, IPA: [iˈlaŋɡai]. In 1972 the name was changed to "Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka". In 1978 it was changed to the "Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka".[22] While the name Ceylon still appears in the names of a number of organisations, in 2011 the Sri Lankan government announced a plan to rename all those over which it has authority.[23]
History
Main article: History of Sri Lanka
Pre-historic
Main article: Prehistory of Sri Lanka
The pre-history of Sri Lanka dates back over 125 thousand years Before Present (BP) and possibly even as early as 500,000 BP.[24] The era spans the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and early Iron Ages. Among the Paleolithic human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka, Pahiyangala (named after the Chinese traveller monk Faxian), which dates back to 37,000 BP,[25] Batadombalena (28,500 BP)[26] and Belilena (12,000 BP) are the most important. In these caves, archaeologists have found the remains of anatomically modern humans which they have named Balangoda Man, and other evidence[27] suggesting that they may have engaged in agriculture and kept domestic dogs for driving game.[28]
Early inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably the ancestors of the Vedda people,[32] an indigenous people numbering approximately 2,500 living in modern-day Sri Lanka. Irish historian James Emerson Tennent theorized that Galle, a southern city in Sri Lanka, was the ancient seaport of Tarshish from which King Solomon is said to have drawn ivory, peacocks, and other valuables.
Ancient
Main article: Ancient history of Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka first experienced a foreign invasion during the reign of Suratissa, who was defeated by two horse traders named Sena and Guttika from South India.[39] The next invasion came immediately in 205 BC by a Chola king named Elara, who overthrew Asela and ruled the country for 44 years. Dutugemunu, the eldest son of the southern regional sub-king, Kavan Tissa, defeated Elara in the Battle of Vijithapura. He built Ruwanwelisaya, the second stupa in ancient Sri Lanka, and the Lovamahapaya.[43] During its two and a half millennia of existence, the Kingdom of Sri Lanka was invaded at least eight times by neighbouring South Asian dynasties such as the Chola, Pandya, Chera, and Pallava. These invaders were all subsequently driven back.[44] There also were incursions by the kingdoms of Kalinga (modern Odisha) and from the Malay Peninsula as well. Kala Wewa and the Avukana Buddha statue were built during the reign of Dhatusena.[45]
Medieval
Main article: Medieval history of Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka's irrigation system was extensively expanded during the reign of Parākramabāhu the Great (AD 1153–1186).[60] This period is considered as a time when Sri Lanka was at the height of its power.[61][62] He built 1470 reservoirs – the highest number by any ruler in the history - repaired 165 dams, 3910 canals, 163 major reservoirs, and 2376 mini reservoirs.[63] His most famous construction is the Parakrama Samudra,[64] the largest irrigation project of medieval Sri Lanka. Parākramabāhu's reign is memorable for two major campaigns – in the south of India as part of a Pandyan war of succession, and a punitive strike against the kings of Ramanna (Myanmar) for various perceived insults to Sri Lanka.[65]
After his demise, Sri Lanka gradually decayed in power. In AD 1215, Kalinga Magha, a South Indian with uncertain origins, identified as the founder of the Jaffna kingdom, invaded and captured the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa with a 24,000 strong army sailed 690 nautical miles on 100 large ships from Kalinga.[63] Unlike the previous invaders, he looted, ransacked, and destroyed everything in the ancient Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa Kingdoms beyond recovery.[66] His priorities in ruling were to extract as much as possible from the land and overturn as many of the traditions of Rajarata as possible. His reign saw the massive migration of native Sinhalese people to the south and west of Sri Lanka, and into the mountainous interior, in a bid to escape his power. Sri Lanka never really recovered from the impact of Kalinga Magha's invasion. King Vijayabâhu III, who led the resistance, brought the kingdom to Dambadeniya. The north, in the meanwhile, eventually evolved into the Jaffna kingdom.[67][68] The Jaffna kingdom never came under the rule of any kingdom of the south except on one occasion; in 1450, following the conquest led by king Parâkramabâhu VI's adopted son, Prince Sapumal.[69] He ruled the North from AD 1450 to 1467.[70] The next three centuries stating from 1215 were marked by kaleidoscopically shifting collections of kingdoms in south and central Sri Lanka, including Dambadeniya, Yapahuwa, Gampola, Raigama, Kotte,[71] Sitawaka, and finally, Kandy.
Colonization
Main articles: Colonial history of Sri Lanka and British Ceylon
During the Napoleonic Wars, fearing that French control of the Netherlands might deliver Sri Lanka to the French, Great Britain occupied the coastal areas of the island (which they called Ceylon) with little difficulty in 1796.[80] Two years later, in 1798, Rajadhi Rajasinha, third of the four Nayakkar kings of Sri Lanka, died of a fever. Following his death, a nephew of Rajadhi Rajasinha, eighteen-year-old Kannasamy, was crowned.[81] The young king, now named Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, faced a British invasion in 1803 but successfully retaliated. By then, the entire coastal area was under the British East India Company as a result of the Treaty of Amiens. But on 14 February 1815, Kandy was occupied by the British in the second Kandyan War, finally ending Sri Lanka's independence.[81] Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, the last native monarch of Sri Lanka, was exiled to India.[82] The Kandyan Convention formally ceded the entire country to the British Empire. Attempts by Sri Lankan noblemen to undermine British power in 1818 during the Uva Rebellion were thwarted by Governor Robert Brownrigg.[83]
By the end of the 19th century, a new educated social class transcending race and caste arose through British attempts to staff the Ceylon Civil Service and the legal, educational, and medical professions.[88] New leaders represented the various ethnic groups of the population in the Ceylon Legislative Council on a communal basis. Buddhist and Hindu revivalism reacted against Christian missionary activities.[89][90] The first two decades in the 20th century are noted by the unique harmony among Sinhalese and Tamil political leadership, which has since been lost.[91] In 1919, major Sinhalese and Tamil political organisations united to form the Ceylon National Congress, under the leadership of Ponnambalam Arunachalam,[92] pressing colonial masters for more constitutional reforms. But without massive popular support, and with the governor's encouragement for "communal representation" by creating a "Colombo seat" that dangled between Sinhalese and Tamils, the Congress lost momentum towards the mid-1920s.[93] The Donoughmore reforms of 1931 repudiated the communal representation and introduced universal adult franchise (the franchise stood at 4% before the reforms). This step was strongly criticised by the Tamil political leadership, who realised that they would be reduced to a minority in the newly created State Council of Ceylon, which succeeded the legislative council.[94][95] In 1937, Tamil leader G. G. Ponnambalam demanded a 50–50 representation (50% for the Sinhalese and 50% for other ethnic groups) in the State Council. However, this demand was not met by the Soulbury reforms of 1944-45.
Independence
The Soulbury constitution ushered in Dominion status, with independence proclaimed on 4 February 1948.[96] D. S. Senanayake became the first Prime Minister of Ceylon.[97] Prominent Tamil leaders like Ponnambalam and Arunachalam Mahadeva joined his cabinet.[94][98] The British Royal Navy remained stationed at Trincomalee until 1956. A countrywide popular demonstration against withdrawal of the rice ration, known as Hartal 1953, resulted in the resignation of prime minister Dudley Senanayake.[99] S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike was elected prime minister in 1956. His three-year rule had a profound impact through his self-proclaimed role of "defender of the besieged Sinhalese culture".[100] He introduced the controversial Sinhala Only Act, recognising Sinhala as the only official language of the government. Although partially reversed in 1958, the bill posed a grave concern for the Tamil community, which perceived in it a threat to their language and culture.[101][102][103] The Federal Party (FP) launched a movement of non-violent resistance (satyagraha) against the bill, which prompted Bandaranaike to reach an agreement (Bandaranaike-Chelvanayakam Pact) with S. J. V. Chelvanayakam, leader of the FP, to resolve the looming ethnic conflict.[104] However, the pact proved ineffective in the face of ongoing protests by opposition and the Buddhist clergy. The bill, together with various government colonisation schemes, contributed much towards the political rancour between Sinhalese and Tamil political leaders.[105] Bandaranaike was assassinated by an extremist Buddhist monk in 1959.[106]
See also: Sri Lankan Civil War
40,000 Tamil civilians may have been killed in the final phases of the Sri Lankan civil war, according to an Expert Panel convened by U.N. Secretary General Ban Ki-moon. The exact number of Tamils killed is still a speculation that needs further study.[127] Following the LTTE's defeat, the Tamil National Alliance, the largest political party in Sri Lanka, dropped its demand for a separate state in favour of a federal solution.[128][129] The final stages of the war left some 294,000 people displaced.[130][131] According to the Ministry of Resettlement, most of the displaced persons had been released or returned to their places of origin, leaving only 6,651 in the camps as of December 2011.[132] In May 2010, President Rajapaksa appointed the Lessons Learnt and Reconciliation Commission (LLRC) to assess the conflict between the time of the ceasefire agreement in 2002 and the defeat of the LTTE in 2009.[133][134] Sri Lanka has emerged from its 26-year war to become one of the fastest growing economies of the world.[135][136]
Geography
Main article: Geography of Sri Lanka
The island consists mostly of flat to rolling coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south-central part. The highest point is Pidurutalagala, reaching 2,524 metres (8,281 ft) above sea level. The climate is tropical and warm, due to the moderating effects of ocean winds. Mean temperature ranges from 17 °C (62.6 °F) in the central highlands, where frost may occur for several days in the winter, to a maximum of 33 °C (91.4 °F) in other low-altitude areas. Average yearly temperature ranges from 28 °C (82.4 °F) to nearly 31 °C (87.8 °F). Day and night temperatures may vary by 14 °C (25.2 °F) to 18 °C (32.4 °F).[142]
The country has 103 rivers. The longest of these is the Mahaweli River, extending 335 kilometres (208 mi).[145] These waterways give rise to 51 natural waterfalls of 10 meters or more. The highest is Bambarakanda Falls, with a height of 263 metres (863 ft).[146] Sri Lanka's coastline is 1,585 km long.[147] It claims an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) extending 200 nautical miles, which is approximately 6.7 times the country's land area. The coastline and adjacent waters support highly productive marine ecosystems such as fringing coral reefs and shallow beds of coastal and estuarine seagrasses.[148] Sri Lanka has 45 estuaries and 40 lagoons.[147] The country's mangrove ecosystem, which spans over 7,000 hectares, played a vital role in buffering the force of the waves in the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.[149] The island is rich in minerals such as ilmenite, feldspar, graphite, silica, kaolin, mica and thorium.[150][151] Existence of petroleum in the Gulf of Mannar has also been confirmed and extraction attempts are underway.[152]
Flora and fauna
Main articles: Environment of Sri Lanka and Wildlife of Sri Lanka
Flowering acacias flourish on the arid Jaffna Peninsula. Among the trees of the dry-land forests are valuable species such as satinwood, ebony, ironwood, mahogany and teak. The wet zone is a tropical evergreen forest with tall trees, broad foliage, and a dense undergrowth of vines and creepers. Subtropical evergreen forests resembling those of temperate climates flourish in the higher altitudes.[158]
Sri Lanka is home to over 250 types of resident birds (see List). It has declared several bird sanctuaries including Kumana.[161] During the Mahaweli Program of the 1970s and 1980s in northern Sri Lanka, the government set aside four areas of land totalling 1,900 km2 (730 sq mi) as national parks. However, the country's forest cover, which was around 49% in 1920, had fallen to approximately 24% by 2009.[162][163]
Politics
Main article: Politics of Sri Lanka
Current politics in Sri Lanka is a contest between two rival coalitions led by the centre-leftist and progressivist United People's Freedom Alliance (UPFA), an offspring of Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP), and the comparatively right-wing and pro-capitalist United National Party (UNP).[168] Sri Lanka is essentially a multi-party democracy with many smaller Buddhist, socialist and Tamil nationalist political parties. As of July 2011, the number of registered political parties in the country is 67.[169] Of these, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP), established in 1935, is the oldest.[170] The UNP, established by D. S. Senanayake in 1946, was until recently the largest single political party .[171] It is the only political group which had representation in all parliaments since independence.[171] SLFP was founded by S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike, who was the Cabinet minister of Local Administration before he left the UNP in July 1951.[172] SLFP registered its first victory in 1956, defeating the ruling UNP in 1956 Parliamentary election.[172] Following the parliamentary election in July 1960, Sirimavo Bandaranaike became the prime minister and the world's first elected female head of state.[173]
G. G. Ponnambalam, the Tamil nationalist counterpart of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike,[174] founded the All Ceylon Tamil Congress (ACTC) in 1944. Objecting to Ponnambalam's cooperation with D. S. Senanayake, a dissident group led by S.J.V. Chelvanayakam broke away in 1949 and formed the Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi (ITAK), also known as the Federal Party, becoming the main Tamil political party in Sri Lanka for next two decades.[175] The Federal Party advocated a more aggressive stance toward the Sinhalese.[176] With the constitutional reforms of 1972, the All Ceylon Tamil Congress (ACTC) and Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi (ITAK) created a common front called the Tamil United Front (later Tamil United Liberation Front). Following a period of turbulence as Tamil militants rose to power in the late 1970s, these Tamil political parties were succeeded in October 2001 by the Tamil National Alliance.[176][177] Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna, a Marxist-Leninist political party founded by Rohana Wijeweera in 1965, serves as a third force in the current political context.[178] It endorses leftist policies which are more radical than the traditionalist leftist politics of the LSSP and the Communist Party.[176] Founded in 1981, the Sri Lanka Muslim Congress is the largest Muslim political party in Sri Lanka.[179]
Government
Main articles: Constitution of Sri Lanka and Elections in Sri Lanka
 National Symbols of Sri Lanka |
|
|---|---|
| Flag | Lion Flag |
| Emblem | Gold Lion Passant |
| Anthem | Sri Lanka Matha |
| Butterfly | Troides darsius |
| Bird | Sri Lanka Junglefowl |
| Flower | Red and Blue Water Lily |
| Tree | Ceylon Ironwood (Nā) |
| Sport | Volleyball |
| Source: [180][181] | |
In common with many democracies, the Sri Lankan government has three branches:
- Executive: The President of Sri Lanka is the head of state, the commander in chief of the armed forces, as well as head of government, and is popularly elected for a six-year term.[183] In the exercise of duties, the President is responsible to the parliament. The President appoints and heads a cabinet of ministers composed of elected members of parliament.[184] The president is immune from legal proceedings while in office with respect to any acts done or omitted to be done by him or her in either an official or private capacity.[185] Following passage of the 18th amendment to the constitution in 2010, the President has no term limit, which previously stood at two years.[186]
- Legislative: The Parliament of Sri Lanka is a unicameral 225-member legislature with 196 members elected in multi-seat constituencies and 29 elected by proportional representation.[187] Members are elected by universal (adult) suffrage based on a modified proportional representation system by district to a six-year term. The president may summon, suspend, or end a legislative session and dissolve Parliament any time after it has served for one year. The parliament reserves the power to make all laws.[188] The president's deputy, the Prime Minister, leads the ruling party in parliament and shares many executive responsibilities, mainly in domestic affairs.
- Judicial: Sri Lanka's judiciary consists of a Supreme Court – the highest and final superior court of record,[188] a Court of Appeal, High Courts and a number of subordinate courts. The highly complex legal system reflects diverse cultural influences.[189] Criminal law is based almost entirely on British law. Basic Civil law derives from Roman law and Dutch law. Laws pertaining to marriage, divorce, and inheritance are communal.[190] Due to ancient customary practices and/or religion, the Sinhala customary law (Kandyan law), the Thesavalamai, and Sharia law are followed in special cases.[191] The President appoints judges to the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, and the High Courts. A judicial service commission, composed of the Chief Justice and two Supreme Court judges, appoints, transfers, and dismisses lower court judges.
Administrative divisions
Main articles: Provinces of Sri Lanka, Districts of Sri Lanka, and Divisional Secretariats of Sri Lanka
See also: List of cities in Sri Lanka and List of towns in Sri Lanka
For administrative purposes, Sri Lanka is divided into nine provinces[192] and twenty-five districts.[193]Provinces There have been provinces (Sinhala: පළාතTamil: மாகாணம்) in Sri Lanka since the 19th century, but they had no legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment to the 1978 constitution established provincial councils after several decades of increasing demand for a decentralisation of the Government of Sri Lanka.[194] Each provincial council is an autonomous body not under the authority of any Ministry. Some of its functions had been undertaken by central government ministries, departments, corporations, and statutory authorities,[194] but authority over land and police is not as a rule given to provincial councils.[195][196] Between 1988 and 2006, the Northern and Eastern provinces were temporarily merged to form the North-East Province.[197][198] Prior to 1987, all administrative tasks for the provinces were handled by a district-based civil service which had been in place since colonial times. Now each province is administered by a directly elected provincial council:
| Administrative Divisions of Sri Lanka | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Province | Capital | Area (km²) | Area (sq mi) |
Population | |||
| Central | Kandy | 5,674 | 2,191 | 2,556,774 | |||
| Eastern | Trincomalee | 9,996 | 3,859 | 1,547,377 | |||
| North Central | Anuradhapura | 10,714 | 4,137 | 1,259,421 | |||
| Northern | Jaffna | 8,884 | 3,430 | 1,060,023 | |||
| North Western | Kurunegala | 7,812 | 3,016 | 2,372,185 | |||
| Sabaragamuwa | Ratnapura | 4,902 | 1,893 | 1,919,478 | |||
| Southern | Galle | 5,559 | 2,146 | 2,465,626 | |||
| Uva | Badulla | 8,488 | 3,277 | 1,259,419 | |||
| Western | Colombo | 3,709 | 1,432 | 5,837,294 | |||
There are three other types of local authorities: Municipal Councils (18), Urban councils (13) and Pradeshiya Sabha, also called Pradesha Sabhai (256).[201] Local authorities were originally based on feudal counties named korale and rata, and were formerly known as 'D.R.O. divisions' after the 'Divisional Revenue Officer'.[202] Later the D.R.O.s became 'Assistant Government Agents' and the divisions were known as 'A.G.A. divisions'. These Divisional Secretariats are currently administered by a 'Divisional Secretary'.
| Largest cities of Sri Lanka (2010 Department of Census and Statistics estimate)[203] |
|||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Colombo  Kandy |
Rank | City Name | Province | Pop. | Rank | City Name | Province | Pop. |
 Galle  Jaffna |
||
| 1 | Colombo | Western | 752,933 | 11 | Batticaloa | Eastern | 92,332 | ||||
| 2 | Dehiwala-Mount Lavinia | Western | 245,974 | 12 | Jaffna | Northern | 88,138 | ||||
| 3 | Moratuwa | Western | 207,755 | 13 | Katunayake | Western | 76,816 | ||||
| 4 | Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte | Western | 135,806 | 14 | Dambulla | Central | 68,821 | ||||
| 5 | Negombo | Western | 127,754 | 15 | Kolonnawa | Western | 64,887 | ||||
| 6 | Kandy | Central | 125,351 | 16 | Anuradhapura | North Central | 63,208 | ||||
| 7 | Kalmunai | Eastern | 106,783 | 17 | Embilipitiya | Sabaragamuwa | 58,371 | ||||
| 8 | Vavuniya | Northern | 99,653 | 18 | Ratnapura | Sabaragamuwa | 52,170 | ||||
| 9 | Galle | Southern | 99,478 | 19 | Badulla | Uva | 47,587 | ||||
| 10 | Trincomalee | Eastern | 99,135 | 20 | Matara | Southern | 47,420 | ||||
Foreign relations and the military
Main articles: Foreign relations of Sri Lanka and Sri Lanka Armed Forces
One of the two parties that have governed Sri Lanka since its independence, the United National Party, has traditionally favoured links with the West while its left-leaning counterpart, the Sri Lanka Freedom Party, has favoured links with the East.[204] Sri Lankan Finance Minister J. R. Jayewardene, together with then Australian Foreign Minister Sir Percy Spencer, proposed the Colombo Plan at the Commonwealth Foreign Minister's Conference held in Colombo in 1950.[205] At the San Francisco Peace Conference in 1951, while many countries were reluctant, Sri Lanka argued for a free Japan and refused to accept payment of reparations for World War II damage because it believed it would harm Japan's economy.[206] Sri Lanka-China relations started as soon as the PRC was formed in 1949. The two countries signed an important Rice-Rubber Pact in 1952.[207] Sri Lanka played a vital role at the Asian–African Conference in 1955, which was an important step in the crystallisation of the NAM.[208]
The Bandaranaike government of 1956 significantly changed the pro-western policies set by the previous UNP government. It recognised Cuba under Fidel Castro in 1959. Shortly afterward, Cuba's revolutionary Ernesto Che Guevara paid a visit to Sri Lanka.[209] The Sirima-Shastri Pact of 1964[210] and Sirima-Gandhi Pact of 1974[211] were signed between Sri Lankan and Indian leaders in an attempt to solve the long standing dispute over the status of plantation workers of Indian origin. In 1974, Kachchatheevu, a small island in Palk Strait, was formally ceded to Sri Lanka.[212] By this time, Sri Lanka was strongly involved in the NAM and Colombo held the fifth NAM summit in 1976.[213] The relationship between Sri Lanka and India became tense under the government of J. R. Jayawardene.[121][214] As a result, India intervened in the Sri Lankan Civil War and subsequently deployed an Indian Peace Keeping Force in 1987.[215] In the present, Sri Lanka enjoys extensive relations with China,[216] Russia[217] and Pakistan.[218]
The Sri Lanka Armed Forces, comprising the Sri Lanka Army, the Sri Lanka Navy, and the Sri Lanka Air Force, come under the purview of the Ministry of Defence (MoD).[219] The total strength of the three services is around 259,000 personnel, with nearly 36,000 reserves.[220] Sri Lanka has not enforced military conscription.[221] Paramilitary units include the Special Task Force, the Civil Security Force, and the Sri Lanka Coast Guard[222][223]
Since independence in 1948, the primary focus of the armed forces has been internal security, crushing three major insurgencies, two by Marxist militants of the JVP and a 30-year long conflict with the LTTE which has been proscribed as a terrorist organisation by 32 countries. The armed forces have been in a continuous mobilised state for the last 30 years.[224][225] Marking a rare occurrence in modern military history, the Sri Lankan military was able to bring a decisive end to the Sri Lankan Civil War in May 2009.[226] Sri Lanka has claimed to be the first country in the modern world to eradicate terrorism on its own soil.[227] The Sri Lankan Armed Forces have engaged in United Nations peacekeeping operations since the early 1960s, contributing forces to permanent contingents deployed in several UN peacekeeping missions in Chad, Lebanon, and Haiti.[228]
Economy
Main article: Economy of Sri Lanka
See also: Agriculture in Sri Lanka, Tea production in Sri Lanka, Tourism in Sri Lanka, and Transport in Sri Lanka
While the production and export of tea, rubber, coffee, sugar and other commodities remain important, industrialisation has increased the importance of food processing, textiles, telecommunications and finance. The country's main economic sectors are tourism, tea export, clothing, rice production and other agricultural products. In addition to these economic sectors, overseas employment, especially in the Middle East, contributes substantially in foreign exchange.[232] As of 2010, the service sector makes up 60% of GDP, the industrial sector 28%, and the agriculture sector 12%.[232] The private sector accounts for 85% of the economy.[233] India is Sri Lanka's largest trading partner.[234] Economic disparities exist between the provinces, with the Western province contributing 45.1% of the GDP and the Southern province and the Central province contributing 10.7% and 10%, respectively.[235] With the end of the war, the Northern province reported a record 22.9% GDP growth in 2010.[236]
The Global Competitiveness Report, published by the World Economic Forum, has described Sri Lanka's economy as transitioning from the factor-driven stage to the efficiency-driven stage, and that it ranks 52nd in global competitiveness.[241] Also, out of the 142 countries surveyed, Sri Lanka ranked 45th in health and primary education, 32nd in business sophistication, 42nd in innovation, and 41st in goods market efficiency. Sri Lanka ranks 8th in the World Giving Index, registering high levels of contentment and charitable behaviour in its society.[242] In 2010, The New York Times placed Sri Lanka at the top of its list of 31 places to visit.[243] The Dow Jones classified Sri Lanka as an emerging market in 2010, and Citigroup classified it as a 3G country in February 2011.[244] Sri Lanka ranks well above other South Asian countries in the Human Development Index (HDI) with 0.715 points.[245]
Although poverty has reduced by 50% during last five years, malnutrition remains a problem among children. 29% of the children under five years of age are reported to be underweight.[246] Nearly 58% of infants between six and eleven months and 38% of children between twelve and twenty-three months are anaemic. While Dengue remains the major infectious disease,[247] non-communicable diseasees (NCDs) account for 85% of ill health, disability and early death.[248] Sri Lankans have a life expectancy of 77.9 years at birth, which is 10% higher than the world average.[232] The infant mortality rate stands at 8.5 per 1,000 births and the maternal mortality rate at 0.39 per 1,000 births, which is on par with figures from the developed countries. The universal "pro-poor"[249] health care system adopted by the country has contributed much towards these figures.[250]
Sri Lanka's road network consists of 35 A grade highways and one Controlled-access highway (E01).[251] The railway network, operated by the state-run national railway operator, Sri Lanka Railways, spans 1,447 kilometres (900 mi).[252] Sri Lanka also has three deep-water ports, at Colombo, Galle, and Trincomalee, in addition to the newest port being built at Hambantota. The port at Trincomalee is the fifth largest natural harbour in the world: during World War II the British stated that they could place their entire navy in the harbour with room to spare. Sri Lanka's flag carrier airline is SriLankan Airlines. Fitch Ratings has affirmed Sri Lanka's Foreign- and Local-Currency Issuer Default Ratings (IDRs) at 'BB-' with a "stable" outlook.[citation needed]. With a grant of 20 million dollars from the US and help from China, a space academy has been set up for the purpose of developing an indigenous space sector to launch satellites of other nations as well as of Sri Lanka. This dual use of launching technology will also serve to develop missile technology. On 26 September 2012 China launched Sri Lanka's first satellite, with plans for more launches in the coming years.[253][254][255]
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka is also a multi-religious country. 70% are Buddhists,[263] most of whom follow the Theravada school of Buddhism.[264] Most of the Buddhist are from majority Sinhalese ethnic group. Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka in the 2nd century BCE by Venerable Mahinda.[264] A sapling of the Bodhi Tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment was brought to Sri Lanka during the same time. The Pali Canon (Thripitakaya), having previously been preserved as an oral tradition, was first committed to writing in Sri Lanka around 30 BCE.[265] Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any predominately Buddhist nation,[264] with the Sangha having existed in a largely unbroken lineage since its introduction in the 2nd century BCE. During periods of decline, the Sri Lankan monastic lineage was revived through contact with Thailand and Burma.[265] Buddhism is given special recognition in the Constitution which requires Sri Lankan to "protect and foster the Buddha Sasana".[266]
Hinduism is the second most prevalent religion in Sri Lanka and predates Buddhism. Today, Hinduism is dominant in Northern, Eastern and Central Sri Lanka.[267] Hindus are mainly Tamils.
Islam is the third most dominant religion in the country, having first been brought to the island by Arab traders, over the course of many centuries, starting around the 7th century A.D. Most Muslims are Sunni who follow the Shafi'i school.[268] Most followers of Islam in Sri Lanka today are believed to be descendants of these Arab traders and the local women they married.[citation needed] Sri Lanka is currently seeing a significant rise in sectarian attacks against Muslims.[269]
Christianity was also brought into the country by Western colonists in the early 16th century.[272] Around 7.4% of the Sri Lankan population are Christians. Out of those, 82% are Roman Catholics, who trace their religious heritage directly to the Portuguese. The rest of the Christians are evenly split between the Anglican Church of Ceylon and other Protestant faiths.[273] There is also a small population of Zoroastrian immigrants from India (Parsis) who settled in Ceylon during the period of British rule.[274] But the community has steadily dwindled in recent years.[275] Religion plays a prominent role in the life and culture of Sri Lankans. The Buddhist majority observe Poya Days, once per month according to the Lunar calendar. The Hindus and Muslims also observe their own holidays. Sri Lanka was ranked the 3rd most religious country in the world by a 2008 Gallup poll, with 99% of Sri Lankans saying religion is an important part of their daily life.[276]
Human rights and media
Main articles: Human rights in Sri Lanka and Media in Sri Lanka
Officially, the constitution of Sri Lanka guarantees human rights as ratified by the United Nations. However human rights in Sri Lanka have come under criticism by Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch,[283] as well as the United States Department of State.[284] British colonial rulers,[285] the separatist Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) and the government of Sri Lanka are accused of violating human rights. In crushing the Great Rebellion of 1817–18, the British massacred over one percent of the population of the country.[286] and practiced a scorched earth policy in Uva Province.[287] The Uva Wellassa area has not yet recovered from that brutal suppression. A report by an advisory panel to the UN secretary-general has accused both the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government of alleged war crimes during final stages of the civil war.[288][289]
The UN Human Rights Council has documented over 12,000 named individuals who have undergone disappearance after detention by security forces in Sri Lanka, the second highest figure in the world since the Working Group came into being in 1980.[290] The Sri Lankan government has confirmed that 6,445 of these are dead. Allegations of human rights abuses have not ended with the close of the ethnic conflict.[291]
UN Human Rights Commissioner Navanethem Pillay visited Sri Lanka in May, 2013. After her visit she said, “The war may have ended [in Sri Lanka], but in the meantime democracy has been undermined and the rule of law eroded.” Pillay spoke about the military’s increasing involvement in civilian life and reports of military land grabbing. She also said that while in Sri Lanka she had been allowed to go wherever she wanted but that Sri Lankans who came to meet her were harassed and intimidated by security forces.[292][293]
Culture
Main article: Culture of Sri Lanka
The culture of Sri Lanka dates back over 2500 years.[294] It is influenced primarily by Buddhism and Hinduism.[295] According to Islamic folklore, Adam and Eve were offered refuge on the island as solace for their expulsion from the Garden of Eden.[296]
The island is the home to two main traditional cultures: the Sinhalese
(centred in the ancient cities of Kandy and Anuradhapura) and the Tamil
(centred in the city of Jaffna). In more recent times, the British
colonial culture has also influenced the locals. Sri Lanka claims a
democratic tradition matched by few other developing countries.[296]
The first Tamil immigration was probably around the 3rd century BC.[295] Tamils co-existed with the Sinhalese people since then, and the early mixing rendered the two ethnic groups almost physically indistinct.[297] Ancient Sri Lanka is marked for its genius in hydraulic engineering and architecture. The rich cultural traditions shared by all Sri Lankan cultures is the basis of the country's long life expectancy, advanced health standards and high literacy rate.[296]
Food and festivals
Main articles: Cuisine of Sri Lanka, List of Sri Lankan sweets and desserts, and Festivals in Sri Lanka
Dishes include rice and curry, pittu, Kiribath, wholemeal Roti, String hoppers, wattalapam (a rich pudding of Malay origin made of coconut milk, jaggery, cashew nuts, eggs, and spices including cinnamon and nutmeg), kottu, and hoppers.[298] Jackfruit may sometimes replace rice and curries. Traditionally food is served on a plantain leaf.
Middle Eastern influences and practices are found in traditional Moor dishes, while Dutch and Portuguese influences are found with the island's Burgher community preserving their culture through traditional dishes such as Lamprais (rice cooked in stock and baked in a banana leaf), Breudher (Dutch Holiday Biscuit), Bolo Fiado (Portuguese-style layer cake), and Gumbo Lillas (Dutch style honey coated sweet treats).
In April, Sri Lankans celebrate the Buddhist and Hindu new year festival.[299] In addition, Esala Perahera, a symbolic Buddhist festival consisting of dances and richly decorated elephants, is held in Kandy, during the month of August.[300] Fire-dances, whip-dances, Kandian dances and various other cultural dances are integral parts of the festival. Tamils celebrate Thai Pongal, Maha Shivaratri and Muslims celebrate Hajj, Ramadan in their respective days of the year.
Visual, literary and performing arts
Main articles: Cinema of Sri Lanka, Music of Sri Lanka, Dances of Sri Lanka, Theatre of Sri Lanka, and Sri Lankan literature
The movie Kadawunu Poronduwa (The broken promise), produced by S. M. Nayagam of Chitra Kala Movietone, heralded the coming of Sri Lankan cinema in 1947. Ranmuthu Duwa (Island of treasures, 1962) marked the transition cinema from black-and-white to colour. It in the recent years has featured subjects such as family melodrama, social transformation and the years of conflict between the military and the LTTE.[301] Their cinematic style is similar to the Bollywood movies. In 1979, movie attendance rose to an all-time high, but has been in steady decline since then.[302] Undoubtedly the most influential and revolutionary filmmaker in the history of Sri Lankan cinema is Lester James Peiris, who has directed a number of movies which led to global acclaim, including Rekava (Line of destiny, 1956), Gamperaliya (The changing village, 1964), Nidhanaya (The treasure, 1970) and Golu Hadawatha (Cold heart, 1968).[303]The earliest music in Sri Lanka came from theatrical performances such as Kolam, Sokari and Nadagam.[304] Traditional music instruments such as Béra, Thammátama, Daŭla and Răbān were performed at these dramas. The first music album, Nurthi, was released through Radio Ceylon, in 1903. Songwriters like Mahagama Sekara and Ananda Samarakoon and musicians such as W. D. Amaradeva, H. R. Jothipala and Clarence Wijewardene have contributed much towards the upliftment of Sri Lankan music.[305] Baila is another popular music genre in the country, originated among Kaffirs or the or Afro-Sinhalese community.[306]
The history of Sri Lankan painting and sculpture can be traced as far back as to the 2nd or 3rd century BC.[310] The earliest mention about the art of painting on Mahavamsa, is to the drawing of a palace on cloth using cinnabar in the 2nd century BC. The chronicles have description of various paintings in relic-chambers of Buddhist stupas, and in monastic residence.
Theatre moved into the country when a Parsi company from Mumbai introduced Nurti, a blend of European and Indian theatrical conventions to the Colombo audience in 19th century.[308] The golden age of Sri Lankan drama and theatre began with the staging of Maname, a play written by Ediriweera Sarachchandra in 1956.[311] It was followed by a series of popular dramas like Sinhabāhu, Pabāvatī, Mahāsāra, Muudu Puththu and Subha saha Yasa.
Sri Lankan literature spans at least two millennia, and is heir to the Aryan literary tradition as embodied in the hymns of the Rigveda.[312] The Pāli Canon, the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, was written down in Sri Lanka during the Fourth Buddhist council, at the Alulena cave temple, Kegalle, as early as 29 BC.[313] Ancient chronicles such as the Mahāvamsa, written in the 6th century, provide vivid descriptions of Sri Lankan dynasties. According to the German philosopher Wilhelm Geiger, the chronicles are based on Sinhala Atthakatha (commentary), that dates few more centuries back.[312] The oldest surviving prose work is the Dhampiya-Atuva-Getapadaya, compiled in the 9th century.[312] The greatest literary feats of medieval Sri Lanka include Sandesha Kāvya (poetic messages) such as Girā Sandeshaya (Parrot message), Hansa Sandeshaya (Swan message) and Salalihini Sandeshaya (Myna message). Poetry including Kavsilumina, Kavya-Sekharaya (diadem of poetry) and proses such as Saddharma-Ratnāvaliya, Amāvatura (Flood of nectar) and Pujāvaliya are also notable works of this period, which is considered to be the golden age of Sri Lankan literature.[312] The first modern-day novel, Meena, a work of Simon de Silva appeared in 1905,[308] and was followed by a number of revolutionary literary works. Martin Wickramasinghe, the author of Madol Doova is considered the iconic figure of Sri Lankan literature.[314]
Education
Main article: Education in Sri Lanka
Kannangara led the establishment of the Madhya Maha Vidyalayas (Central Schools) in different parts of the country in order to provide education to Sri Lanka's rural children.[317] In 1942 a special education committee proposed extensive reforms to establish an efficient and quality education system for the people. However in the 1980s changes to this system saw the separation the of administration of schools between the central government and the provincial government. Thus the elite National Schools are controlled directly by the Ministry of Education and the provincial schools by the provincial government. Sri Lanka has approximately 9675 government schools, 817 private schools and Pirivenas.[232] The number of public universities in Sri Lanka is 15.[323] However, lack of responsiveness of the education system to labour market requirements, disparities in access to quality education, lack of an effective linkage between secondary and tertiary education remain major challenges for the education sector.[324] A number of private, degree awarding institutions have emerged in recent times to fill in these gaps. But still, the participation at tertiary level education hovers around 5.1%.[325] The proposed private university bill has been withdrawn by the Higher Education Ministry after university students’ heavy demonstrations and resistance.[326]
The British science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke (most famous as the author of 2001 A Space Odyssey) served as Chancellor of Moratuwa University in Sri Lanka from 1979 to 2002.
Sports
Main article: Sport in Sri Lanka
The Sri Lanka national cricket team achieved considerable success beginning in the 1990s, rising from underdog status to winning the 1996 Cricket World Cup.[329] They also became the runners up of the Cricket World Cup in 2007,[330] 2011.[331] and of the ICC World Twenty20 in 2009 and 2012.[332] Former Sri Lankan off-spinner, Muttiah Muralitharan has been rated as the greatest Test match bowler ever by Wisden Cricketers' Almanack.[333] Sri Lanka has won the Asia Cup in 1986,[334] 1997,[335] 2004[336] and 2008.[337] Current world records for highest team score in all three formats of the game are also held by Sri Lanka.[338] The country co-hosted the Cricket World Cup in 1996, 2011 and have hosted the 2012 ICC World Twenty20. They lost to the West Indies by 36 runs.
Sri Lankans have won two medals at Olympic Games, one silver, by Duncan White at 1948 London Olympics for men's 400 metres hurdles[339] and one silver by Susanthika Jayasinghe at 2000 Sydney Olympics for women's 200 metres.[340] In 1973, Mohammed Lafir won the World Billiards Championship, highest feat of a Sri Lankan in a Cue sport.[341] Aquatic sports such as boating, surfing, swimming, kitesurfing[342] and scuba diving on the coast, the beaches and backwaters attract a large number of Sri Lankans and foreign tourists. There are two styles of martial arts native to Sri Lanka, Cheena di and Angampora.[343]
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